What are food additives?
Food additives are chemical substances added to food to maintain its quality (preservatives), nutrition value, taste (flavouring agents), and appearance (colouring agents).
Sources of food additives can be:
- Natural — eg, red colour from beetroots, purple colour from grape skins (anthocyanins)
- Synthetic manufacture of:
- Products not found in nature (eg, aspartame, an alternative to sugar)
- Many naturally found additives (eg, ascorbic acid), as synthetic production is often less expensive.
The safety of food additives is assessed by agencies such as Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in the European Union (EU), or the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
Food additive hypersensitivity
Adverse reactions to food additives (hypersensitivity) can occur via immunologic or non-immunologic mechanisms. Non-immunologic reactions are sometimes referred to as ‘food intolerances’.
Food additives associated with adverse reactions include, but are not limited to:
- Sulfites
- Aspartame
- Tartrazine
- Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
- Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
- Parabens
- Benzoates.
Epidemiology
The prevalence of adverse reactions to food additives in the general population is low, estimated at ~1–2% in children and 1% in adults. It appears to be more common in atopic children (2–7%).
Clinical features
Reactions vary from mild to severe, and can involve cutaneous and non-cutaneous symptoms.
- Cutaneous symptoms may include flushing, pruritus, rash, urticaria, and angioedema. Benzoates and flavourings have been implicated in the cause of orofacial granulomatosis.
- Non-cutaneous symptoms may include rhinorrhoea, cough, nausea and vomiting, reflux or ‘heartburn’, abdominal cramping, diarrhoea or constipation, and anaphylactic shock.
Sometimes food additive reactions can contribute to exacerbations of existing disease, such as a flare-up of atopic dermatitis (eczema) or asthma.
A history suggestive of potential food additive hypersensitivity includes:
- Adverse reactions to a number of unrelated foods
- Reactions to a type of food when commercially prepared, but not when home-cooked
- Exacerbation of a pre-existing condition (eg, eczema) without another clear cause.
Diagnosis
Diagnostic tools for adverse reactions to food additives include:
- Skin prick testing
- Blood tests — Immunoglobulin E (IgE) tests to specific food additives such as carmine, mannitol, saffron, and vegetable gum
- Atopy patch test
- Oral food challenges
Treatment
- Avoidance of additives identified is mainstay treatment.
- Checking ingedient lists on food labels, as well as medications and cosmetics is recommended.
Specific treatment depends on the reaction observed. Treatment may include oral antihistamines, topical steroids, nasal sprays, or in the case of anaphylaxis, adrenaline (epinephrine). A medical alert bracelet for those with severe and anaphylactic reactions is also recommended.
What are food additive E numbers?
Foods sold throughout the EU have had full ingredient labelling since the mid-1980s. These include standard codes (E numbers) that accurately describe additives. These numbers are also used in other regions such as Australia and New Zealand, without the E (‘Europe’).
- E100s: generally food colours.
- E200s: mainly preservatives and acids.
- E300s: mainly antioxidants and acid regulators.
- E400s: include emulsifiers, stabilisers, and thickeners.
- E500s: include anti-caking agents and acidity regulators.
- E600s: mainly flavour enhancers.
- E900s: include sweeteners, glazing agents, foaming agents, and gases.
- E1000s: other additives.
Commonly used food additives are included in Tables 1-6 below. These tables are not complete or exhaustive and may undergo change as additives are re-classified.
A full list of additives in the EU is published by the Food Standards Agency (United Kingdom). A similar list for Australia and New Zealand is published by the New Zealand Food Safety Association.
Table 1. Colouring agents (E100s)
E number | Name | Description | Examples of use |
E100 |
Curcumin |
|
|
E101 |
Riboflavin or lactoflavin (Vitamin B2) |
|
|
E102 | Tartrazine |
|
|
E104 | Quinoline Yellow |
|
|
E110 | Sunset Yellow FCF; Orange Yellow S |
|
|
E120 | Cochineal; Carminic acid; Carmines |
|
|
E122 | Azorubine; Carmoisine |
|
|
E123 | Amaranth |
|
|
E124 | Ponceau 4R; Cochineal Red A |
|
|
E127 | Erythrosine |
|
|
E128 | Red 2G |
|
|
E129 | Allura Red AC |
|
|
E131 | Patent Blue V |
|
|
E132 | lndigotine; Indigo Carmine |
|
|
E133 | Brilliant Blue FCF |
|
|
E140 | Chlorophyll and chlorophyllins |
|
|
E141 | Copper complexes of chlorophyll and chlorophyllins |
|
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E142 | Green S |
|
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E150a | Plain caramel |
|
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E150b | Caustic sulphite caramel |
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E150c | Ammonia caramel |
|
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E150d | Sulphite ammonia caramel |
|
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E151 | Brilliant Black BN; Black PN |
|
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E153 | Vegetable carbon |
|
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E155 | Brown HT |
|
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E160 a - e | Carotenoids |
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E160a | Alpha-, beta, and gamma-carotenes |
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E160b | Annatto |
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E160c | Paprika extract; Capsanthian; Capsorubin |
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E160d | Lycopene |
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E160e | Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (C30); apocarotenal |
|
|
E161b | Lutein |
|
|
E161g | Canthaxanthin |
|
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E162 | Betanin (Beetroot Red) |
|
|
E163 | Anthocyanins |
|
|
E170 | Calcium carbonate (chalk) |
|
|
E171 | Titanium dioxide |
|
|
E172 | Iron oxides and hydroxides |
|
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E173 | Aluminium |
|
|
E174 | Silver |
|
|
E175 | Gold |
|
|
E180 | Lithol rubine BK |
|
|
E numbers for preservatives
Table 2. Preservatives (mainly E200s)
E number | Name | Description | Examples of use |
E200 | Sorbic acid |
|
|
E202 | Potassium sorbate |
|
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E210 | Benzoic acid |
|
|
E211 | Sodium benzoate |
|
|
E212 |
Potassium benzoate |
|
|
E213 | Calcium benzoate |
|
|
E214 | Ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate |
|
|
E215 | Sodium ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate |
|
|
E218 | Methyl p-hydroxybenzoate |
|
|
E219 | Sodium methyl p-hydroxybenzoate |
|
|
E220 | Sulfur dioxide |
|
|
E221 | Sodium sulphite |
|
|
E222 | Sodium hydrogen sulphite |
|
|
E223 | Sodium metabisulphite |
|
|
E224 | Potassium metabisulphite |
|
|
E226 | Calcium sulphite |
|
|
E227 | Calcium hydrogen sulphite |
|
|
E228 | Potassium hydrogen sulphite |
|
|
E234 | Nisin |
|
|
E235 | Natamycin |
|
|
E239 | Hexamethylene tetramine |
|
|
E242 | Dimethyl dicarbonate |
|
|
E243 | Ethyl lauroyl arginate |
|
|
E249 | Potassium nitrite |
|
|
E250 | Sodium nitrite |
|
|
E251 | Sodium nitrate |
|
|
E252 | Potassium nitrate |
|
|
E280 | Propionic acid |
|
|
E281 | Sodium propionate |
|
|
E282 | Calcium propionate |
|
|
E283 | Potassium propionate |
|
|
E284 | Boric acid |
|
|
E285 | Sodium tetraborate; borax |
|
|
E1105 | Lysozyme |
|
|
E numbers for antioxidants
Table 3. Antioxidants (mainly E300s)
E number | Name | Description | Examples of use |
E300 | Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) |
|
|
E301 | Sodium ascorbate |
|
|
E302 | Calcium ascorbate |
|
|
E304 | Fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid |
|
|
E306 | Tocopherol (Vitamin E) |
|
|
E307 | Alpha-tocopherol |
|
|
E308 | Gamma-tocopherol |
|
|
E309 | Delta-tocopherol |
|
|
E310 | Propyl gallate |
|
|
E315 | Erythorbic acid |
|
|
E316 | Sodium erythorbate |
|
|
E319 | Tertiary-butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) |
|
|
E320 | Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) |
|
|
E321 | Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) |
|
|
E392 | Extracts of rosemary |
|
|
E586 | 4-Hexylresorcinol |
|
|
E numbers for sweeteners
Table 4. Sweeteners (E400s and E900s)
E number | Name | Description | Examples of use |
E420 | Sorbitol |
|
|
E421 | Mannitol |
|
|
E950 | Acesulfame K |
|
|
E951 | Aspartame |
|
|
E952 | Cyclamic acid and its Na and Ca salts |
|
|
E953 | lsomalt |
|
|
E954 | Saccharin and its Na, K, and Ca salts |
|
|
E955 | Sucralose |
|
|
E957 | Thaumatin |
|
|
E959 | Neohesperidine DC |
|
|
E960 | Steviol glycoside |
|
|
E961 | Neotame |
|
|
E962 | Salt of aspartame-acesulfame |
|
|
E964 | Polyglycitol syrup |
|
|
E965 | Maltitol |
|
|
E966 | Lactitol |
|
|
E967 | Xylitol |
|
|
E968 | Erythritol |
|
|
E969 | Advantame |
|
|
E numbers for emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners, and gelling agents
Table 5. Emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners, and gelling agents (mainly E400s)
E number | Name | Description | Examples of use |
E322 | Lecithins |
|
|
E400 | Alginic acid |
|
|
E401 | Sodium alginate |
|
|
E402 | Potassium alginate |
|
|
E403 | Ammonium alginate |
|
|
E404 | Calcium alginate |
|
|
E405 | Propane-1,2-diol alginate; propylene glycol alginate (PGA) |
|
|
E406 | Agar |
|
|
E407 | Carrageenan (Irish moss) |
|
|
E407a | Processed eucheuma seaweed |
|
|
E410 | Locust bean gum; carob gum |
|
|
E412 | Guar gum (cluster bean gum) |
|
|
E413 | Tragacanth |
|
|
E414 | Acacia gum; gum arabic |
|
|
E415 | Xanthan gum |
|
|
E416 | Karaya gum |
|
|
E417 | Tara gum |
|
|
E418 | Gellan gum |
|
|
E425 | Konjac |
|
|
E426 | Soybean hemicellulose |
|
|
E427 | Cassia gum |
|
|
E432 | Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate; Polysorbate 20 |
|
|
E433 | Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono-oleate; Polysorbate 80 |
|
|
E434 | Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monopalmitate; Polysorbate 40 |
|
|
E435 | Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate; Polysorbate 60 |
|
|
E436 | Polyoxyethylene sorbitan tristearate; Polysorbate 65 |
|
|
E440a | Pectin |
|
|
E440b | Amidated pectin |
|
|
E442 | Ammonium phosphatide |
|
|
E444 | Sucrose acetate isobutyrate |
|
|
E445 | Glycerol esters of wood rosins |
|
|
E460 | Cellulose |
|
|
E461 | Methyl cellulose |
|
|
E462 | Ethyl cellulose |
|
|
E463 | Hydroxypropyl cellulose |
|
|
E464 | Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose |
|
|
E465 | Ethyl methyl cellulose |
|
|
E466 | Carboxymethyl cellulose |
|
|
E468 | Crosslinked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose |
|
|
E469 | Enzymatically hydrolysed carboxymethyl cellulose |
|
|
E470a | Sodium, potassium, and calcium salts of fatty acids |
|
|
E470b | Magnesium salts of fatty acids |
|
|
E471 | Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E472a | Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E472b | Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E472c | Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E472d | Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E472e | Mono- and diacetyltartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E472f | Mixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E473 | Sucrose esters of fatty acids |
|
|
E474 | Sucroglycerides |
|
|
E475 | Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids |
|
|
E476 | Polyglycerol polyricinoleate |
|
|
E477 | Propane-1,2-diol esters of fatty acids |
|
|
E479b | Thermally oxidised soya bean oil interacted with mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids |
|
|
E481 | Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate |
|
|
E482 | Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate |
|
|
E483 | Stearyl tartrate |
|
|
E491 | Sorbitan monostearate |
|
|
E492 | Sorbitan tristearate |
|
|
E493 | Sorbitan monolaurate |
|
|
E494 | Sorbitan monooleate |
|
|
E495 | Sorbitan monopalmitate |
|
|
E1103 | Invertase |
|
E numbers for other food additives
Table 6. Other food additives
E number | Name | Description | Examples of use |
E260 | Acetic acid |
|
|
E261 | Potassium acetate |
|
|
E262 | Sodium acetate |
|
|
E263 | Calcium acetate |
|
|
E270 | Lactic acid |
|
|
E290 | Carbon dioxide |
|
|
E296 | Malic acid |
|
|
E297 | Fumaric acid |
|
|
E325 | Sodium lactate |
|
|
E326 | Potassium lactate |
|
|
E327 | Calcium lactate |
|
|
E330 | Citric acid; lemon salt |
|
|
E331 | Sodium citrates |
|
|
E332 | Potassium citrates |
|
|
E333 | Calcium citrates |
|
|
E334 | Tartaric acid (L-(+)) |
|
|
E335 | Sodium tartrates |
|
|
E336 | Potassium tartrates |
|
|
E337 | Sodium potassium tartrates |
|
|
E338 | Phosphoric acid |
|
|
E339 | Sodium phosphates |
|
|
E340 | Potassium phosphates |
|
|
E341 | Calcium phosphates |
|
|
E343 | Magnesium phosphates |
|
|
E350 | Sodium malate |
|
|
E351 | Potassium malate |
|
|
E352 | Calcium malate |
|
|
E353 | Metatartaric acid |
|
|
E354 | Calcium tartrate |
|
|
E355 | Adipic acid |
|
|
E356 | Sodium adipate |
|
|
E357 | Potassium adipate |
|
|
E363 | Succinic acid |
|
|
E380 | Triammonium citrate |
|
|
E385 | Calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate; calcium disodium EDTA |
|
|
E422 | Glycerol |
|
|
E423 | Octenyl succinic acid modified gum arabic |
|
|
E450 | Diphosphates |
|
|
E451 | Triphosphates |
|
|
E452 | Polyphosphates |
|
|
E459 | Beta-cyclodextrin; betadex |
|
|
E499 | Stigmasterol-rich plant sterols | ||
E500 | Sodium carbonate |
|
|
E501 | Potassium carbonate |
|
|
E503 | Ammonium carbonate |
|
|
E504 | Magnesium carbonate |
|
|
E507 | Hydrochloric acid |
|
|
E508 | Potassium chloride |
|
|
E509 | Calcium chloride |
|
|
E511 | Magnesium chloride |
|
|
E512 | Stannous chloride |
|
|
E513 | Sulphuric acid |
|
|
E514 | Sodium sulphate |
|
|
E515 | Potassium sulphate |
|
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E516 | Calcium sulphate |
|
|
E517 | Ammonium sulphate |
|
|
E520 | Aluminium sulphate |
|
|
E521 | Aluminium sodium sulphate |
|
|
E522 | Aluminium potassium sulphate |
|
|
E523 | Aluminium ammonium sulphate |
|
|
E524 | Sodium hydroxide |
|
|
E525 | Potassium hydroxide |
|
|
E526 | Calcium hydroxide |
|
|
E527 | Ammonium hydroxide |
|
|
E528 | Magnesium hydroxide |
|
|
E529 | Calcium oxide (quicklime) |
|
|
E530 | Magnesium oxide |
|
|
E535 | Sodium ferrocyanide |
|
|
E536 | Potassium ferrocyanide |
|
|
E538 | Calcium ferrocyanide |
|
|
E541 | Sodium aluminium phosphate |
|
|
E551 | Silicon dioxide (Silica) |
|
|
E552 | Calcium silicate |
|
|
E553a | (i) Magnesium silicate
(ii) Magnesium trisilicate |
|
|
E553b | Talc |
|
|
E554 | Sodium aluminium silicate |
|
|
E555 | Potassium aluminium silicate |
|
|
E570 | Fatty acids; stearic acid |
|
|
E574 | Gluconic acid |
|
|
E575 | Glucono delta-lactone (GDL); gluconolactone |
|
|
E576 | Sodium gluconate |
|
|
E577 | Potassium gluconate |
|
|
E578 | Calcium gluconate |
|
|
E579 | Ferrous gluconate |
|
|
E585 | Ferrous lactate |
|
|
E620 | L-Glutamic acid |
|
|
E621 | Monosodium glutamate (MSG) |
|
|
E622 | Monopotassium glutamate |
|
|
E623 | Calcium glutamate |
|
|
E624 | Monoammonium glutamate |
|
|
E625 | Magnesium diglutamate | ||
E626 | Guanylic acid |
|
|
E627 | Disodium guanylate |
|
|
E628 | Dipotassium guanylate |
|
|
E629 | Calcium guanylate |
|
|
E630 | Inosinic acid |
|
|
E631 | Disodium inosinate |
|
|
E632 | Dipotassium inosinate |
|
|
E633 | Calcium inosinate |
|
|
E634 | Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides |
|
|
E635 | Sodium-5-ribonucleotide |
|
|
E640 | Glycine and its sodium salt |
|
|
E641 | L-leucine |
|
|
E650 | Zinc acetate |
|
|
E900 | Dimethylpolysiloxane |
|
|
E901 | Beeswax, white and yellow |
|
|
E902 | Candelilla wax |
|
|
E903 | Carnauba wax |
|
|
E904 | Shellac |
|
|
E905 | Microcrystalline wax |
|
|
E907 | Hydrogenated poly-1-decene | ||
E914 | Oxidised polyethylene wax |
|
|
E920 | L-cysteine |
|
|
E927b | Carbamide | ||
E938 | Argon |
|
|
E939 | Helium |
|
|
E941 | Nitrogen |
|
|
E942 | Nitrous oxide |
|
|
E943a | Butane |
|
|
E943b | Iso-butane |
|
|
E944 | Propane |
|
|
E948 | Oxygen |
|
|
E949 | Hydrogen |
|
|
E999 | Quillaia extract |
|
|
E1200 | Polydextrose |
|
|
E1201 | Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) |
|
|
E1202 | Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP) |
|
|
E1203 | Polyvinyl alcohol |
|
|
E1204 | Pullulan |
|
|
E1205 | Basic methacrylate copolymer |
|
|
E1206 | Neutral methacrylate copolymer |
|
|
E1207 | Anionic methacrylate copolymer |
|
|
E1208 | Polyvinylpyrrolidone-vinyl acetate copolymer | ||
E1209 |
Polyvinyl alcohol-polyethylene glycol-graft copolymer; PVA-PEG graft copolymer |
|
|
E1400-1414 | Starches |
|
|
E1404 | Oxidised starch | ||
E1410 | Monostarch phosphate |
|
|
E1412 | Distarch phosphate |
|
|
E1413 | Phosphated distarch phosphate |
|
|
E1414 | Acetylated distarch phosphate |
|
|
E1420 | Acetylated starch |
|
|
E1422 | Acetylated distarch adipate |
|
|
E1440 | Hydroxyl propyl starch |
|
|
E1442 | Hydroxy propyl distarch phosphate |
|
|
E1450 | Starch sodium octenyl succinate |
|
|
E1451 | Acetylated oxidised starch | ||
E1452 | Starch aluminium Octenyl succinate |
|
|
E1505 | Triethyl citrate |
|
|
E1517 | Glyceryl diacetate; diacetin |
|
|
E1518 | Glyceryl triacetate; triacetin |
|
|
E1520 | Propan-1,2-diol; propylene glycol |
|
|
E1521 | Polyethylene glycol (PEG) |
|
Food additives without E numbers
Numbers without an E prefix that are under consideration for becoming E numbers, and commonly used additives that have not yet been given numbers, are included in Table 7.
Table 7. Food additives without E numbers
Name | Description | Examples of use |
Arrowroot |
|
|
Caffeine |
|
|
Calciferol |
|
|
Calcium bromate |
|
|
Casein |
|
|
Chlorine |
|
|
Chlorine dioxide |
|
|
Corn syrup |
|
|
Extenders |
|
|
Fructose |
|
|
Gelatine |
|
|
Hydrolysed vegetable protein (HVP) |
|
|
Invert sugar |
|
|
Iodine |
|
|
Lactose |
|
|
Niacin / nicotinic acid |
|
|
Potassium bromate |
|
|
Sodium chloride / salt |
|
|
Sucrose |
|
|
Thiamine |
|
|
Vanillin |
|
|